Multiple Jewish translators · 250 BC · Scripture
The Septuagint is the earliest large-scale translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek and remains a foundational textual witness for both Jewish and Christian Bible history. Produced for Greek-speaking Jewish communities of…
Anonymous / traditional · 100 BC · Scripture
The Targumic tradition constitutes a major early body of vernacular translation into Aramaic, arising in Jewish communities for whom Aramaic had become the everyday language, and preserving interpretation alongside translation. Rendered from…
Anonymous (Diadache) · 50–120 · Treatise
The Didache, or "Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," is an anonymous Christian manual written sometime between 50 and 120 CE for communities transitioning from Judaism to Christianity or seeking to establish proper…
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Clement of Rome · 90–100 · Letter
First Clement is a letter written around 96 CE from the church at Rome to the church at Corinth, addressing a crisis of leadership that had torn the Corinthian community apart. A…
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Papias of Hierapolis · 95–130 · Book
The fragments of Papias of Hierapolis represent one of Christianity's earliest attempts to preserve and interpret the oral traditions surrounding Jesus and the apostles. Writing in the early second century as bishop…
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Clement of Rome · 96 · Letter
The First Epistle of Clement stands as one of Christianity's earliest non-canonical writings, composed around 96 CE by Clement of Rome on behalf of the Roman church. The letter addresses a crisis…
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Clement of Rome · 96 · Letter
The First Epistle to the Corinthians is a pastoral letter written around 96 CE by Clement, then bishop of Rome, to address a crisis of authority in the Corinthian church. The congregation…
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Clement of Rome · 96 · Letter
Written around 96 AD, this letter from the Roman church to the Christian community in Corinth represents one of Christianity's earliest expressions of ecclesiastical authority outside the New Testament canon. The occasion…
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Papias of Hierapolis · 100–140 · Other
The Logion kyriakon exegeseos, or "Exposition of the Sayings of the Lord," was a five-volume collection of Jesus' teachings compiled by Papias of Hierapolis in the early second century. Writing as a…
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Hermas (Shepherd of Hermas) · 100–160 · Other
The Shepherd of Hermas is an early Christian apocalyptic work composed in Rome between 100 and 160 CE, emerging from a community grappling with questions of post-baptismal sin and church discipline. Written…
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Ignatius of Antioch · 107 · Letter
The Letter to the Romans stands as the most theologically rich and personally urgent of the seven authentic letters written by Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, during his journey to martyrdom in Rome…
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Ignatius of Antioch · 108 · Letter
Ignatius of Antioch's letter to the Ephesians stands as one of seven authentic epistles written around 108 CE during his journey under armed guard from Antioch to martyrdom in Rome. Written while…
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Ignatius of Antioch · 108–110 · Letter
The Letter to the Magnesians stands as one of seven authentic epistles written by Ignatius of Antioch during his final journey to Rome for martyrdom around 108-110 CE. Ignatius penned this brief…
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Ignatius of Antioch · 108–110 · Letter
This letter represents one of seven authentic epistles written by Ignatius of Antioch during his journey under Roman guard from Syria to his martyrdom in Rome around 108–110 CE. Addressed to the…
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Ignatius of Antioch · 108–110 · Letter
Ignatius of Antioch's letter to the Trallians stands as one of seven authentic epistles written during his final journey from Antioch to Rome, where he faced martyrdom around 108-110 CE. Composed while…
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Polycarp of Smyrna · 110–140 · Letter
This letter from Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, to the Christian community at Philippi stands as one of the earliest surviving documents of post-apostolic Christianity. Written sometime between 110 and 140 CE, the…
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Polycarp of Smyrna · 110 · Letter
The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians stands as one of the earliest surviving Christian letters outside the New Testament canon, written by the bishop of Smyrna sometime in the first half…
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Ignatius of Antioch · 110 · Letter
Ignatius of Antioch's letter to Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, represents one of the most personal and pastoral documents from the earliest period of Christian leadership. Written around 110 CE during Ignatius's transport…
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Ignatius of Antioch · 110 · Letter
Ignatius of Antioch's letter to the Smyrnaeans stands as one of seven authentic epistles written during his journey to martyrdom in Rome around 110 CE. Written while under guard and facing execution,…
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Aquila of Sinope · 130 · Scripture
Aquila's Greek version is a major second-century Jewish retranslation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, celebrated for its exceptionally close adherence to Hebrew form. Made directly from the Hebrew, with the Hebrew…
Clement of Rome · 140–160 · Letter
The Second Letter to the Corinthians, traditionally attributed to Clement of Rome, is an early Christian homily that addresses fundamental questions about salvation, repentance, and Christian living. Unlike the authentic First Clement,…
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Justin Martyr · 150–165 · Treatise
The Dialogue with Trypho stands as the earliest extensive Christian apologetic work directed toward Judaism, composed by the philosopher-martyr Justin in the mid-second century. Written as a literary dialogue recounting Justin's encounter…
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Justin Martyr · 150–160 · Treatise
Justin Martyr's First Apology stands as Christianity's earliest systematic defense addressed directly to imperial power. Written around 150-160 CE and presented to Emperor Antoninus Pius, this treatise emerged from the urgent need…
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Multiple anonymous translators · 150 · Scripture
The Old Latin Bible, also known collectively as the Vetus Latina tradition, is the earliest family of Latin biblical translations and an important witness to early Greek texts. Produced for Latin-speaking Christian…
